Chainsaws, a vital tool in both forestry and garden maintenance, come in various models each suited to specific tasks and user preferences. Understanding the differences between gas-powered, electric, and battery-operated chainsaws can help users select the right tool for their needs.
Gas-powered chainsaws are among the most common and traditionally used types. Known for their power and endurance, these chainsaws are ideal for heavy-duty cutting tasks such as felling large trees or cutting through thick branches. They operate on a mixture of gasoline and oil, which fuels their high-powered engines. The main advantage of gas chainsaws is their mobility and robustness, making them perfect for extensive outdoor work where electricity may not be accessible. However, they tend to be heavier, noisier, and require more maintenance than their electric counterparts.
Electric chainsaws, on the other hand, are connected to an electrical source using a cord. They are generally lighter than gas models and easier to handle, making them suitable for light to medium yard tasks like trimming small trees or cutting smaller logs. Electric chainsaws start instantly and operate more quietly than gas models, offering a more pleasant user experience with less vibration. The limitation of being tethered by a cord can be a drawback as it restricts mobility and is best used where there is ready access to a power outlet.
Battery-operated or cordless chainsaws provide a good balance between the portability of gas-powered models and the quieter operation of electric ones. These saws run on rechargeable lithium-ion batteries that free users from the dependency on direct power sources or fuel. While they may not match the power output of gas chainsaws, technological advances have significantly improved their performance making them adequate for many typical garden tasks such as pruning and light cutting. Battery life can be limiting; however, with extra batteries or fast-charging options available today, they present a flexible solution particularly in noise-sensitive environments.
In conclusion, selecting the right type of chainsaw depends largely on the specific needs of the user including the nature of the task at hand, location constraints (availability of power), environmental considerations (noise levels), duration of use (battery life vs continuous power supply), weight handling capabilities, among others aspects. Gas-powered saws excel in raw power and autonomy but are heavier and noisier; electric saws offer simplicity and ease but need constant connection to power; while battery-operated models provide convenient portability with lesser emissions but might fall short during prolonged uses unless supported by spare batteries. Through careful consideration of these factors against intended applications ensures optimal productivity and operational satisfaction when using any model of chainsaw.
The evolution of chainsaws over the years has significantly focused on enhancing safety alongside improving performance. Modern chainsaws are equipped with several built-in safety features that aim to protect the user from common injuries associated with their operation, while also making the tools more comfortable and less physically demanding to use.
One of the most critical safety features in contemporary chainsaws is the chain brake. This mechanism is designed to stop the chain almost instantly when a significant kickback occurs. Kickback happens when the chain tip hits an object or gets pinched, causing the saw to jerk back towards the operator, which can lead to severe injuries. The chain brake can be activated manually by pushing a handle forward or automatically by inertia when a sudden movement is detected. This feature significantly reduces the risk of injury during such incidents.
Another vital component aimed at enhancing safety is the anti-vibration system. Chainsaw operation generates considerable vibration, which, over time, can lead to hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS), a debilitating condition affecting nerves, joints, muscles, and blood vessels in the hands and arms. To combat this, modern chainsaws incorporate anti-vibration technologies that minimize the amount of vibration transmitted to the user through dampeners made of rubber or steel springs placed between the engine and handle. This not only makes using a chainsaw safer but also less fatiguing, enabling longer periods of use without discomfort.
Ergonomic design is also a paramount aspect of modern chainsaw development. Ergonomically designed handles and body ensure that they fit comfortably in one's hands and maintain balance during use, reducing strain on various parts of the body. Proper ergonomics help in maintaining control over the tool under various operating conditions which minimizes potential accidents caused by losing grip or mishandling due to awkward positioning.
Furthermore, modern designs include improved guard features for additional protection against debris and accidental contact with moving parts. These guards are strategically placed to provide maximum shield while allowing optimal maneuverability.
Lastly, advancements in materials and technology have led to lighter chainsaws that are easier to handle without compromising power or durability. Lightweight models reduce fatigue for users especially during extended periods of use or when working at difficult angles such as tree limbing or overhead cutting.
In conclusion, modern chainsaws are not just powerful tools for cutting; they are engineered keeping user safety and comfort in mind. Features like chain brakes, anti-vibration systems, ergonomic designs, improved guards, and lightweight construction all work together to provide an environment where accidents are less likely and users can perform tasks efficiently while minimizing physical stress. These innovations reflect an ongoing commitment within tool manufacturing industries toward better safety standards - benefiting both casual backyard users and professional lumberjacks alike.
Woodworking is both an art and a science that utilizes various tools to transform raw wood into practical or decorative items. Essential hand tools play a pivotal role in the woodworking process, each serving specific functions that influence the efficiency and quality of the final product. In discussing chainsaws and other critical hand tools like hammers, saws, chisels, and planes, it's important to explore both their identification and usage.
Chainsaws, although not often associated with traditional hand tool sets for fine woodworking, serve as powerful instruments for cutting large sections of timber quickly. They are primarily used in the initial stages of woodworking projects to breakdown bulk wood into more manageable pieces. A typical chainsaw consists of a motor and a chain blade which rotates around a guide bar. Safety is paramount when using chainsaws due to their power and potential for causing injury.
Moving to more conventional hand tools used in detailed woodworking, hammers are undoubtedly fundamental. The most common type used in woodworking is the claw hammer. Its primary purpose is to drive nails into wood or extract them. The claw end can also be useful for prying apart joined pieces of wood gently.
Saws come in various forms including handsaws, back saws, coping saws, and hacksaws, each designed for specific tasks within woodworking projects. Handsaws are perhaps the most versatile among these and are used for making straight cuts through different types of woods. Back saws have finer teeth and a rigid spine on one edge to maintain control during precision cuts necessary for joinery work like dovetails or tenons.
Chisels are simple yet incredibly effective woodworking tools essential for detailed carving or cutting away at hard materials like wood. They require skillful handling to shape material with accuracy where mechanical saw cannot reach or perform delicate operations such as creating joints or intricate designs on surfaces.
Lastly, planes are indispensable in any serious woodworker's toolkit. Used primarily for smoothing surfaces and trimming down wood thicknesses uniformly, they allow craftsmen to achieve precise dimensions and smooth finishes required in high-quality furniture making or cabinetry.
Each tool mentioned has its unique features that contribute towards successful completion of woodworking projects from rough cutting with chainsaw down to fine finishing touches with planes. Mastery over these tools involves not only understanding their physical characteristics but also learning techniques suited best for each tool's function.
In summary, effective application of these essential hand tools requires knowledge about what each tool can do along with proper technique execution which comes from practice over time. Whether it's employing a heavy-duty chainsaw or fine-tuning details with chisels and planes - knowing how to harness each tool's strengths can greatly enhance both productivity and enjoyment found in the craft of woodworking.
Maintaining a chainsaw is essential to ensuring its efficient operation and longevity. Whether you're a homeowner tending to your backyard or a professional arborist managing large landscapes, understanding the basics of chainsaw maintenance can save you from costly repairs and prolong the life of your tool. Here are some fundamental tips on routine maintenance practices for chainsaws, focusing on chain sharpening, engine care, and proper storage.
Chain Sharpening The chain is arguably the most critical component of a chainsaw. A sharp chain cuts efficiently, reducing the amount of fuel used and the wear on the engine. Dull chains can lead to dangerous situations where excessive force is needed to cut, increasing the risk of accidents. To maintain your chainsaw’s chain:
Engine Care A well-maintained engine ensures that your chainsaw runs smoothly and starts easily. Here’s how you can keep your chainsaw’s engine in top condition:
Proper Storage How you store your chainsaw when it's not in use can impact its functionality over time.
By adhering to these simple yet effective maintenance tips—sharpening the chain regularly, taking good care of its engine, and storing properly—you ensure that your chainsaw remains reliable, powerful, and ready to handle anything thrown its way efficiently without unexpected malfunctions or unnecessary wear-and-tear.
Over time these practices not only contribute significantly towards extending lifespan but also optimize performance making every cut smoother and safer thus enhancing overall user experience whether during routine yard work or demanding tree felling operations!
In the realm of craftsmanship, particularly in woodworking and sculpting, the innovative application of hand tools and chainsaws has led to significant advancements in both technique and artistic expression. These tools, often perceived merely as instruments for basic construction or rough shaping, have been elevated to facilitate fine furniture making and intricate sculptural works that rival the delicacy traditionally associated with more precise instruments like chisels and gouaches.
Chainsaws, typically associated with felling trees or rough cutting timber, have found a unique niche in the world of artisanal woodworking. Artists and craftsmen have pushed beyond traditional boundaries to harness these powerful machines for creating detailed sculptures and intricate details on large pieces of wood. One notable example is the work done by chainsaw artists during competitions and exhibitions where they transform large logs into finely detailed sculptures within hours - a task that would traditionally take days with hand carving tools alone. This rapid form of sculpting not only highlights the efficiency of chainsaws but also showcases the control and finesse that skilled craftsmen can achieve with them.
Furthermore, moving from the rugged outdoors into the refined spaces of furniture workshops, chainsaws are not commonly spotted. However, some innovative artisans have adapted their use for crafting fine furniture. For instance, when constructing large pieces such as dining tables or benches from single slabs of wood, a chainsaw may be used initially to cut down and roughly shape the piece. The ability to manage such a powerful tool with precision allows for maintaining natural aesthetics while ensuring structural integrity.
Hand tools themselves hold an irreplaceable place in fine craftsmanship. From chisels to planes and saws, these tools require skill and patience but offer unmatched control over detail. Innovative uses include their integration with modern designs where traditional joinery techniques are employed to create visually stunning effects without sacrificing durability or strength. The dovetail joint-an ancient method used for connecting two pieces of wood at right angles-is often celebrated not only for its robustness but also as an aesthetic feature in modern furniture design.
Moreover, some craftsmen blend hand tool techniques with other mediums such as metals or resins to produce unique textures and finishes on wooden surfaces. By using gouges or scrapers on a wooden base interlaid with metal strips or poured resin, artisans can achieve effects that are both tactilely pleasing and visually striking.
The cross-pollination between traditional hand tool methods and modern materials or techniques exemplifies how innovation within craftsmanship continually evolves. Chainsaws which once might have been considered too crude for delicate work are now being guided by steady hands to create soft curves and edges; similarly, age-old chisels find new life in workshops dedicated to pushing design boundaries while respecting material integrity.
Thus, through imaginative applications balanced by deep respect for traditional practices, craftsmen utilize both chainsaws and hand tools not just as means to an end but as essential partners in the dance of creation-where every motion counts towards shaping lasting beauty from raw nature.
When choosing chainsaws and hand tools, several factors must be considered to ensure efficiency, safety, and cost-effectiveness. Each of these factors plays a critical role in the selection process and can significantly impact the success of various tasks.
Firstly, task requirements are paramount. The nature of the job determines what type of tool is necessary. For instance, cutting through thick hardwood demands a more powerful chainsaw compared to trimming small branches. Similarly, for hand tools, heavy-duty tasks might require sturdier and more durable tools made from high-quality materials like forged steel.
Frequency of use is another crucial factor. Tools that are intended for daily professional use should be selected for durability and long-term performance, potentially justifying a higher initial investment. In contrast, for occasional home use, a less expensive model might suffice. It's important that the tool's build quality matches its expected usage to prevent premature failure and ensure user safety.
User experience level also influences tool choice significantly. Professional users may prefer tools with advanced features that allow more precise control and faster completion of tasks. Meanwhile, amateurs or home users might benefit from simpler models that prioritize ease of use and safety features to avoid accidents due to inexperience.
Finally, budget constraints cannot be overlooked. While it's often tempting to opt for cheaper models to save money initially, it’s essential to consider long-term costs such as maintenance and potential replacements if the tool fails early. Investing in well-crafted, reputable brands can lead to longer-lasting tools with better after-sales service and availability of spare parts.
In conclusion, selecting the right chainsaws and hand tools requires a balanced consideration of task requirements, frequency of use, user experience level, and budget constraints. By carefully assessing each factor against one's specific needs and circumstances, individuals can make informed decisions that provide value while ensuring performance and safety.
Chainsaws are powerful tools commonly used in forestry, landscaping, and various forms of construction and maintenance. While they significantly ease the process of cutting through wood and other materials, there is a growing concern about their environmental impact. Chainsaws, particularly those powered by gasoline, contribute to air pollution due to the emissions from their engines. Additionally, their noise levels can disrupt local wildlife habitats and contribute to noise pollution.
One of the primary environmental concerns with gasoline-powered chainsaws is their emission of pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. These emissions not only contribute to air pollution but also pose health risks to humans who operate or are in proximity to these devices. Furthermore, improper use and maintenance can lead to fuel spills which contaminate soil and water sources.
To minimize the environmental footprint associated with using chainsaws, several strategies can be adopted. Opting for electric models is a significant step forward. Electric chainsaws produce zero emissions at the point of use and are generally quieter than their gasoline counterparts. This change alone substantially reduces the air pollution linked with traditional chainsaws while also diminishing noise levels that can affect both humans and wildlife.
Additionally, ensuring that any chainsaw-whether electric or gasoline-powered-is used efficiently contributes to minimizing environmental impact. Efficient use practices include maintaining sharp blades for quicker cuts which reduce the time the machine needs to run; this directly translates into less energy used whether from electricity or fuel. Regular maintenance ensures that machines work efficiently and safely while preventing potential fuel leaks from gas models.
For professionals involved in extensive cutting tasks where electric models might not currently offer sufficient power for all day use without recharging, adopting proper refueling techniques can mitigate some negative effects. Using spill-proof containers when refueling gas-powered chainsaws minimizes chances of spilling gasoline on the ground.
Moreover, manufacturers play a crucial role by designing more environmentally friendly models that consume less power and resources. Advancements in battery technology could make electric chainsaws even more practical by extending their operating life between charges.
In conclusion, while chainsaws are indispensable tools in many industries, it's vital to consider their environmental impacts critically. By opting for electric models when practical, ensuring efficient use practices through proper maintenance and operation techniques, we can significantly decrease the negative effects these powerful tools have on our environment. Such steps will not only benefit nature but enhance sustainability across varied sectors reliant on these essential tools.
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËÂrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËÂrˈbÉâ€Ã‹Âr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÃŽÂνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÃÂλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
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The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
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