Common diseases such as root rot, canker diseases, and leaf blight significantly impact tree stability and overall health. Each of these ailments attacks trees in unique ways, leading to weakened structures and often resulting in reduced lifespan and increased risk of falling. Understanding the symptoms and impacts of these diseases is crucial for effective management and prevention strategies.
Root Rot Root rot is a particularly devastating disease because it attacks the part of the tree that is vital for nutrient uptake and structural stability – the roots. Caused by various fungi such as Phytophthora, Armillaria, and Fusarium, root rot occurs when there is excessive moisture around the roots which creates an ideal environment for these pathogens to thrive. Symptoms of root rot include discolored leaves, a thinning canopy, dieback, and stunted growth. As the roots decay, trees become less anchored to the ground, significantly increasing the risk of toppling over during storms or high winds. Advanced stages of root rot often lead to the death of a tree since it cannot absorb water or nutrients effectively.
Canker Diseases Canker diseases affect trees through wounds on their bark caused by environmental stressors like mechanical injuries or frost cracks. Pathogens such as species from the genera Botryosphaeria or Nectria infect these wounds creating sunken areas (cankers) that girdle branches or trunks. The main symptom to look out for includes cracked or missing bark around a discolored area which may ooze sap or resin. Over time, branches above the canker lose their supply of nutrients and water causing foliage loss and branch dieback. Severely infected trees have decreased structural integrity due to weakened limbs and trunks making them more susceptible to breaking under stress.
Leaf Blight Leaf blight refers to various fungal diseases that cause spots on leaves followed by premature leaf drop. Common pathogens include those from the genera Alternaria, Anthracnose, and Septoria. Symptoms start with small discolored spots which grow into larger lesions eventually causing affected leaves to yellow and fall off prematurely. While leaf blight might seem less dangerous compared to root rot or canker diseases concerning immediate tree stability; heavy defoliation reduces photosynthesis impacting overall vigor and resilience against other stresses.
In conclusion, maintaining healthy trees is essential not only for aesthetic value but also for ensuring public safety in urban environments where large trees are common near residences or pedestrian pathways. Preventative measures including proper site selection planting resistant varieties adequate spacing providing balanced nutrition avoiding wounding trunks regular monitoring early diagnosis treatment infections can significantly reduce incidences severe outcomes associated with root canker leaf blight By understanding symptoms impacts these common diseases stakeholders manage urban forests more effectively safeguarding both natural heritage community wellbeing.
In the delicate balance of nature, trees stand as silent sentinels that contribute indispensably to ecological stability, air purification, and the aesthetic grace of natural landscapes. However, their health is frequently compromised by a variety of pests that can destabilize and ultimately destroy them. Understanding how pests such as bark beetles, wood borers, and aphids impact tree health is crucial for effective management and conservation efforts.
Bark beetles are among the most notorious culprits when it comes to tree damage. These small insects bore through the bark of trees to lay their eggs in the cambium layer beneath. The cambium is a critical part of the tree where new bark and wood cells are formed. As the larvae hatch and feed, they create extensive galleries that disrupt the tree's ability to transport water and nutrients from roots to leaves. Over time, this can result in widespread dieback and eventual tree death. Bark beetles often attack weakened or stressed trees, although massive infestations can fell even healthy specimens.
Wood borers present another formidable threat to tree stability. These insects lay their eggs inside the wood of trees, where emerging larvae burrow deep tunnels through the heartwood and sapwood-the structural parts of a tree responsible for water transport and strength. This tunneling not only weakens structural integrity but also makes trees more susceptible to breaking under stress from wind or weight load. Some species like the emerald ash borer have been especially destructive, leading to significant losses in ash populations across North America.
Aphids might seem less destructive compared to bark beetles or wood borers, but their impact on tree health should not be underestimated. These small sap-sucking insects cluster on leaves and stems where they extract vital fluids from the plant tissue. While feeding, aphids secrete a sticky substance known as honeydew which attracts sooty molds that blacken leaf surfaces, reducing photosynthesis efficiency. Additionally, heavy infestations can debilitate young shoots causing stunted growth or distorted foliage.
Controlling these pests involves integrated strategies including monitoring for early detection; using traps or biological controls like nematodes for beetles; applying insecticides judiciously; encouraging natural predators such as birds; maintaining general tree health through proper watering, mulching, pruning; planting resistant varieties; managing stressors like drought conditions effectively.
Preserving our treasured trees requires diligence in identifying threats posed by pests like bark beetles, wood borers, and aphids-who act silently yet destructively against our arboreal allies-combined with proactive measures designed around sustainable practices that ensure long-term ecosystem resilience.
Trees, the majestic sentinels of our planet, play a critical role in maintaining ecological balance. They provide oxygen, store carbon, stabilize soil, and give life to the world's wildlife. However, despite their robust appearance, trees are vulnerable to a variety of diseases and pests that can significantly compromise their health and stability. Understanding the mechanisms by which diseases and pests affect trees is crucial for effective management and conservation efforts.
One primary way in which diseases impact trees is through the infection of their vascular system. Trees rely on their vascular tissues-xylem and phloem-to transport water, nutrients, and sugars throughout their structure. When pathogens such as fungi or bacteria invade these systems, they can block these essential pathways. For instance, Dutch elm disease, caused by a fungus spread by bark beetles, obstructs the flow of water and nutrients in elm trees by infecting their xylem tissue. As a result, sections of the tree or even entire trees wilt and eventually die due to lack of nourishment.
Similarly, pests such as bark beetles bore through the bark of trees and lay eggs in the cambium layer where new wood cells are produced. The feeding larvae disrupt this layer, halting the tree's ability to transport nutrients and grow new tissues effectively. Over time, this can weaken the structural integrity of the tree making it more susceptible to falling during storms or under its own weight.
Another mechanism is through direct consumption or degradation of critical parts of a tree's structure. Wood-boring insects like termites or carpenter ants eat away at wood from inside out causing extensive damage to trunks and branches. This deterioration not only weakens trees but also reduces their aesthetic value and lifespan.
Moreover, some diseases cause defoliation which not only affects a tree's ability to photosynthesize efficiently but also impacts its overall growth patterns and reproductive capabilities. A good example would be apple scab in apple trees where fungal infections lead to premature leaf drop affecting fruit production severely.
On top of physical damage inflicted by infections or infestations themselves there are secondary effects such as increased susceptibility to other environmental stresses like droughts frost etcetera because energy reserves needed for recovery have been depleted fighting off initial attack
In conclusion understanding different ways that diseases pests affect has significant implications managing protecting our treasured forests urban green spaces By identifying symptoms early implementing appropriate management strategies we help ensure longevity resilience these vital natural resources ensuring they continue fulfill crucial roles ecosystem services they provide
The early detection of diseases or pest infestations in trees is crucial for maintaining their health and stability. Trees compromised by such factors are not only at a higher risk of falling but also pose significant dangers to the ecosystems they support and the human infrastructures surrounding them. Therefore, implementing effective detection techniques is essential for preventing severe damage or instability.
One common method used in the early identification of tree diseases and pests is visual inspection. Arborists, trained professionals in the care of trees, routinely perform these inspections to look for signs of distress. Symptoms might include unusual leaf discoloration, dieback—where parts of the tree prematurely decline—and abnormal growth patterns. Additionally, the presence of visible pests, like bark beetles or defoliators, can be a clear indicator of infestation.
Beyond visual assessments, technology plays a pivotal role in early detection. Remote sensing technology using drones equipped with cameras and other sensors can cover large areas quickly and efficiently. This technology is capable of detecting changes in tree canopies that might indicate disease or pest activity before it becomes apparent to the naked eye. For example, infrared sensors can detect heat stress in trees caused by dehydration or infection often before visible symptoms occur.
Another advanced technique involves the use of pheromone traps. Pheromones are chemicals emitted by many organisms as communication signals; insects often use them to attract mates. By placing synthetic pheromone traps around an area, researchers can attract specific pests, thereby monitoring their presence and abundance effectively.
Acoustic monitoring provides another sophisticated means of detection. Certain types of borers and other pests emit noise as they chew through wood; sensitive microphones can detect these sounds early on when intervention may be more effective.
Additionally, genetic testing has become an invaluable tool in identifying pathogens affecting trees at a molecular level before they manifest any physical signs of disease. This method allows for precise identification and appropriate response strategies tailored to combat specific threats accurately.
Implementing a combination of these methods enhances the chances of catching diseases or pest infestations early on. It allows arborists and environmental scientists to manage tree health proactively rather than reactively—a crucial shift needed considering climate change's impact on increasing both disease prevalence and pest populations globally.
In conclusion, maintaining tree stability through early detection techniques not only saves individual trees but also protects entire ecosystems and human communities from potential harm caused by falling trees or the spread of disease. As our understanding deepens and technologies advance, our capacity to safeguard our natural arboreal assets will significantly improve.
The stability and health of trees are crucial for maintaining the ecological balance, enhancing aesthetic value, and providing various environmental benefits. However, disease or pest infestation can significantly compromise tree stability. Effective management strategies are essential to prevent and control these threats through a combination of chemical treatments, biological controls, and cultural practices.
Chemical Treatments: Chemical treatments remain a prevalent method for controlling diseases and pests in trees. These include the use of fungicides to combat fungal infections and insecticides to target specific pests. Chemicals can be applied as soil injections, foliar sprays, or trunk injections depending on the nature of the problem and the type of tree affected. While chemical treatments are often effective in quickly reducing pest populations or controlling disease spread, they must be used judiciously due to potential side effects such as toxicity to non-target species and contribution to chemical resistance.
Biological Controls: Biological control involves using natural predators or pathogens to manage pest populations. This method is environmentally friendly and sustainable over the long term. For example, introducing parasitic wasps to control aphid populations on trees or using Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) bacteria to manage caterpillar pests that damage leaves and branches. Biological controls require careful planning and monitoring to ensure they are effective in specific environments without disrupting local ecosystems.
Cultural Practices: Cultural practices involve modifying the environment or the way trees are cared for to reduce disease pressure and pest infestations. These practices include proper site selection ensuring adequate sunlight and air circulation which minimizes moisture-related diseases; regular pruning to remove diseased or infested branches; correct watering practices that avoid water stress; cleaning up fallen debris which may harbor pests or fungi; and choosing disease-resistant tree varieties when planting new trees.
Implementing an integrated approach that combines these methods provides the most effective solution for managing tree diseases and pests. Chemical treatments might offer immediate relief from acute infestations but integrating biological controls can provide longer-term sustainability with minimal environmental impact. Likewise, cultural practices play a crucial preventive role by minimizing conditions conducive to outbreaks.
Ultimately, maintaining healthy trees involves ongoing vigilance, informed decision-making about treatment options based on scientific knowledge, continuous observation of tree health, and adapting management strategies as needed based on changing conditions around the trees' environment.
When trees become compromised due to disease or pest infestations, their stability and health are at significant risk. Restoration techniques are crucial in helping these trees regain their vigor and structural integrity. Among the various strategies employed, pruning, cabling, and replanting stand out as effective methods for aiding diseased or pest-infested trees.
Pruning is perhaps the most immediate method of intervention. It involves the selective removal of parts of a tree that are infected or infested by pests. The goal is to eliminate sections that could spread the disease further or weaken the tree's overall structure. However, it's not just about cutting away affected limbs; careful consideration must be taken to maintain the tree's natural shape, promote healthy growth, and avoid additional stress. Pruning should be done with precision and knowledge about the specific disease or pest affecting the tree to prevent exacerbating the problem.
Cabling is another restorative technique used to support ailing trees structurally. This method is particularly useful when a tree’s stability is jeopardized by weakened branches or trunks due to internal decay caused by diseases or external damage from pests like bark beetles. By installing cables between major limbs or from limbs to trunks, arborists can provide additional support to vulnerable structures, helping distribute weight more evenly and prevent limb failure. Cabling must be monitored regularly as improper installation can cause further damage or fail under stress.
Replanting may become necessary when a tree is too severely affected by disease or pests that recovery is unfeasible. In such cases, removing the diseased or infested tree altogether and replacing it with a healthy specimen might be the best option to restore aesthetic value and ecological balance in an area. Replanting involves choosing species that are resistant to existing local pests and diseases as well as suitable for the specific climate and soil conditions of the site.
The application of these restoration techniques requires a deep understanding of botany, entomology, climatology, soil science, and pathology so that each measure not only addresses immediate symptoms but also contributes positively towards long-term health and stability of trees.
In conclusion, restoring trees compromised by diseases or pest infestations through pruning, cabling, and replanting not only helps individual trees survive but also contributes significantly toward maintaining our environment’s biodiversity and beauty. These efforts require careful planning and execution in collaboration with professionals who specialize in arboriculture to ensure success in recovering these vital natural resources.
Lithia Springs may refer to:
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËÂrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËÂrˈbÉâ€Ã‹Âr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÃŽÂνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÃÂλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
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The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
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